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The era of great geographical discoveries (15th–17th centuries) and subsequent periods significantly influenced the development of sports worldwide. These influences introduced new sports, altered existing ones and changed the rules and formats due to cultural exchanges, colonialism, technological advancements and globalization.
Academician Bromley wrote:
“In games, as in other cultural phenomena, the specific conditions of development of a given society and its historical stages are uniquely reflected. A clear example of this is chess. Four or five hundred years ago, chess was significantly slower: the queen could only move one square in any direction, and the bishop was limited to moving no more than two squares along its diagonal. The era of great geographical discoveries, which expanded the boundaries of the world, inadvertently provided much greater freedom of movement for both the queen and the bishop”.
The reform of chess that took place in the 14th and 15th centuries led to the revitalization of the game and the flourishing of the romantic school within it. Representatives of this school preferred a lively, dynamic style of play. Their principles were rapid mobilization of forces and opening of lines. Believing that a combination arises only from inspiration, the “romantics” considered the highest chess virtue to be attacking play. Their games were dominated by attacks involving sacrifices, with frequent combative blows and cunning traps.
This was greatly facilitated by the new capabilities of the chess bishop. With the ability to move along the entire diagonal, its range of movement was significantly increased. While it lost the ability to jump over pieces, the expansion of its reach more than compensated for this loss. As a result, the bishop was also able to “see through” the pieces in its path. In the 20th century, this was referred to as “X-ray” vision. As a result, the game of chess has become faster in its essence.
So what else provided sports with changes to their rules? Is it true that the games of football and rugby were originally one game and tennis was played by monks? Which sport are you supposed to take tea breaks in? Ready to find out? Grab your popcorn and take a seat!
The era of great geographical discoveries laid the groundwork for tennis, football, cricket and hockey to evolve into global, organized sports with formal rules in later centuries. Here we will dive into some facts and explore the main differences in modern sports and their original guise.
Tennis.
The roots of tennis can be found in ancient ball games played in various cultures, such as: the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. Games involving a ball being hit with the hand or a simple stick can be traced back to ancient civilizations. These early games were often played for recreational purposes, though they lacked many of the specific elements of modern tennis.
Tennis originated as “Jeu de Paume” in France, where players used their hands to hit the ball. It is well-documented that monks played jeu de paume in the medieval period. This was especially true in the 12th and 13th centuries, during the time when the game was gaining popularity in France.
The monks played in monastic cloisters, which were often designed with large, open spaces. These spaces were ideal for playing games and jeu de paume became a popular pastime among the clergy.
The game was seen as a way to stay physically active while still maintaining a certain level of discipline and decorum. It was often a social activity that allowed monks to interact and enjoy leisure time.
It’s important to note that, like many medieval ball games, jeu de paume was played by both clergy and nobility and the game was often seen as a form of exercise or even a way of promoting physical fitness and coordination. Over time, the game evolved to include rackets (introduced in the 16th century), influenced by technological advancements from trading and material exchanges during the age of exploration. The use of gut strings for rackets, derived from animal intestines, likely became more refined through trade routes and new manufacturing techniques introduced during the era.
Early tennis balls (used in “Jeu de Paume” and real tennis) were made of leather and stuffed with materials like wool, hair, or animal intestines. These balls were heavy, lacked consistent bounce and were primarily designed for indoor use. After the vulcanization of rubber by Charles Goodyear in 1839, rubber became a durable and elastic material suitable for making tennis balls. By the mid-19th century, vulcanized rubber balls were introduced, which were lighter, bouncier and more consistent. This innovation made tennis easier to play on outdoor surfaces, paving the way for the creation of lawn tennis. This change made tennis more accessible to the general public, as grass lawns were easier to maintain compared to building specialised indoor courts.
The bouncier and faster nature of rubber balls transformed tennis into a more dynamic game:
- Players could use spins, slices and faster serves, which were not as effective with the older, heavier balls.
- The new style of play demanded greater skill and athleticism, influencing the evolution of modern tennis strategies.
Without rubber, modern tennis as we know it—with its fast-paced, outdoor matches and global popularity—might not have evolved in the same way.
Football.
Fine. What about football? Let’s have a look and find out some interesting details.
While the modern rules of football (codified in 1863) were established long after this era, the foundations of the sport were shaped by cultural influences and interactions resulting from global exploration. Here’s how the era influenced football and its eventual rule changes.
The age of exploration introduced Europeans to ball games from other cultures, such as:
- Mesoamerican ball games (e.g., ullamaliztli, played by the Aztecs).
- Indigenous games from Africa and Asia, including games involving kicking or striking a ball.
- These encounters influenced the evolution of various local European ball games, such as mob football, which later contributed to modern football.
As Europeans explored new territories, they encountered open spaces used for communal sports, influencing the design of football fields and the shift from chaotic, large-scale mob football to more structured gameplay. Traditional forms of football involved uneven or massive numbers of players. Over time, influenced by the need for organised play, team sizes were formalised (e.g., the 11-player rule by 1863). The discovery of rubber during global exploration and its later vulcanization in the 19th century led to the creation of inflatable footballs. This innovation allowed for more consistent gameplay and encouraged rules about ball size and weight.
The cultural exchanges during exploration led to greater interaction between nations and regions. By the 19th century, British colonial influence spread the idea of organized sports globally. As football developed, rules like the offside rule (introduced in 1863) were influenced by the need for fair play and structured passing, a concept shaped by global engagement. Colonization led to football’s growth – British colonial influence in the 18th and 19th centuries formalised football rules in schools, clubs and colonies.
The first attempt to bring together a collection of rules to be used everywhere the game was played was made in Cambridge in 1848. However, a debate would last about the shape of the game. It took several more meetings until it was decided once for all that football was a game that exclusively should be played with the feet and not by the hands – this would result in the dividing of football and rugby. Until 1863, carrying the ball with the hands was still practiced in several schools.
The early development of rules would also make football a less violent and brutal game. Some consider the game of today fierce and intense, but it is nothing compared to the game in its early days. Before 1863 “hacking” (kicking down an opponent) was a part of the game.
The standardization that had been reached in 1863 was still far from the modern game we are now familiar with. Here are some rules that applied:
- No crossbar was used and the goal was not specific to a limited height.
- If a player did catch a high ball, he was rewarded a free kick.
- If the ball crossed the sideline, the player that first got the ball was rewarded the throw-in.
- Throw-ins were made with one hand (this was not practiced in Scotland though).
No referees were involved until 1871. Instead, the captains of both teams were assigned to keep order. It was a gentleman’s sport. Yet, in 1871 with the establishment of the Football Association Cup it was decided that two referees should decide if the captains of each team couldn’t agree. Seven years later, the players and the audience could also for the first time hear the referee using a whistle.
In the early days, a goalkeeper was not a distinctive position. Not until 1909 did the last man in the team start to wear a different colored shirt. Three years later came the rule that dictated that the goalkeeper was only allowed to touch the ball with his hands inside the box. Before that, the rules concerning this were looser.
Corner-kicks were introduced in 1872. In 1924, it was decided that a corner-kick was allowed to go straight into the goal. The rule was executed not long after that, in a match between Argentina and Uruguay the same year. The Argentine player Ceáreo Onzari scored the only goal, direct from a corner kick. The goal became famous and was titled “el gol olímpico” (since it was made against the reigning Olympic champions, Uruguay). Gol olímpico is sometimes used in Spanish-speaking countries for a goal scored directly from a corner.
Penalties were introduced in 1891, before that the closest to a penalty was the indirect free kick. At this time the pitches were not marked with penalty areas (it was introduced in 1902); therefore, a penalty was given if the referee judged that a related offence had been made within twelve yards from the goal line.
In 1970, penalty shoot-outs, for deciding a match that was still a draw after full time, was officially put into practice. The same year a penalty-shootout occurred between Hull City and Manchester United in the semi-final of the Watney Cup. The first penalty shoot-out in a World Cup (qualification matches excluded) happened in the 1982, in the semi-final between West Germany and France.
During the past century, many various forms of the offside rules have existed. Since the game in one of its earliest forms only included dribbling and not passing at all, an offside rule was originally superfluous.
The first law with a resemblance of offside dictated that passes had to be done either sideways or backwards. Whereas this became the norm for rugby, the game of football took another route when the rule was changed again in 1866. According to this rule, a player was allowed to pass the ball forward providing three players of the opposite team were between the ball and the opponent’s goal.
The rule would result in lack of goals which lead to several rule changes in the first decades of 1900s. The first change happened 1907 and stated that a player could not be offside in his own half. In 1921, another rule was added to make life easier for the attackers by making it impossible to be offside on a throw-in. A further step was taken in favour of the attackers when it was decided that only two instead of three defenders had to be between the ball and the opponent’s goal.
The changes of the offside rules would initially result in more goals, but in the long run it changed the game tactically in a way that more defenders being used.
Hockey.
Hockey has undergone significant evolution in its rules and gameplay, shaped by historical periods, such as the era of great geographical discoveries and the scientific inventions that followed. While modern hockey rules were formalised in the 19th century, earlier versions of stick-and-ball games, influenced by cultural exchanges and scientific advancements, contributed to its development. Here’s how these eras influenced rule changes and the sport’s evolution.
Stick-and-ball games existed in various cultures, including hurling in Ireland, shinty in Scotland and bandy in Scandinavia. Exploration during the Age of Discovery introduced Europeans to similar games played by Indigenous peoples.
- For example, Native Americans played lacrosse, which may have inspired some elements of modern hockey.
- British explorers and settlers introduced their versions of stick-and-ball games to colonies, where they adapted to local conditions, eventually leading to distinct versions like field hockey and ice hockey.
As hockey spread through British territories (India, Australia, Canada), rules were standardized to allow competition between regions, eventually leading to the formation of the Hockey Association in England (1886).
The industrial revolution brought advancements in materials like leather and steel, transforming equipment. Transitioning from a cork or wooden ball to a durable, standardized ball made of rubber and later composite materials, improved consistency in play. Scientific discoveries in materials like foam and plastics led to the introduction of shin guards, helmets and goalkeeping pads in the 20th century, making the sport safer.
Early hockey games did not have specialised goalkeepers. As the game developed, the role of the goalkeeper was introduced, leading to:
- Rules about protective gear and goalkeeping privileges (e.g., handling the ball).
- Restrictions on how goalkeepers could move and interact with the ball.
Early hockey was played on natural grass fields, but colonial regions often lacked suitable pitches. This led to adaptations like playing on packed dirt or ice. The adaptation of field hockey to frozen environments (e.g., in Canada) gave rise to ice hockey, influenced by local conditions and the availability of skates. Early skates were made from bones, but the invention of steel blades in the 17th century and later innovations improved player speed and control. Ice hockey replaced balls with pucks, which were originally made of wood and later vulcanized rubber.
Early forms of hockey, such as shinty and bandy, had variable team sizes depending on local traditions. By the late 19th century, the number of players was standardised to 11-a-side in field hockey, influenced by the structured formats of British sports.
Cricket.
And finally, cricket.
Cricket spread globally during the 17th and 18th centuries as British explorers and traders established colonies. The groundwork for this global spread was laid during the era of great geographical discoveries. By the 17th century, British settlers introduced cricket to countries like India, the West Indies and North America, influencing local adaptations and later contributing to the sport’s globalization. The need to standardise cricket rules across colonies became apparent as the sport gained popularity. This led to the Laws of Cricket being codified in 1744 and revised multiple times afterward.
The introduction of high-quality leather and new crafting techniques through global trade influenced the construction of cricket balls. Leather balls became more durable and consistent, which impacted how bowlers and batsmen played, leading to rule changes about bowling styles and protective equipment.
In the early days of cricket, underarm bowling was normal. Over time, players experimented with round-arm and eventually overarm techniques, leading to significant rule changes:
- 1770s: Round-arm bowling gained popularity as players sought to take advantage of improved ball construction.
- 1835: Round-arm bowling was legalized after much debate.
- 1864: Overarm bowling was officially permitted, transforming the game’s dynamics.
Cricket adapted to different playing surfaces in colonial regions, such as hard grounds in the Caribbean and matted wickets in South Asia. These adaptations influenced bowling techniques and prompted discussions about fair play and standardised pitch dimensions.
Rubber again allowed for the creation of protective gear like pads and gloves. The use of such equipment led to changes in rules, such as the leg before wicket (LBW) law being refined in 1839 to prevent batsmen from using their padded legs to block the ball unfairly.
As cricket was played in new territories with different environmental conditions (e.g., smaller grounds in colonies), rules regarding boundaries and fielding restrictions evolved. Boundaries, which were often undefined in early cricket, were formalised in the late 19th century to suit the diverse playing conditions encountered globally.
The inclusion of tea and lunch breaks in cricket reflects the social customs of the British colonial era. These breaks became formalised in test cricket, aligning with the leisurely, strategic nature of the game.
As global exploration expanded, so too did the exchange of cultures, ideas, and practices, leading to the international spread and transformation of these sports. In all cases, the interconnectivity brought about by these historical processes not only enhanced the accessibility and popularity of these sports but also contributed to the evolution of their rules, forms and global reach. Ultimately, the intertwining of exploration, colonization and scientific advancements helped reshape these sports, making them integral to the social and cultural fabric of many nations and laying the groundwork for the modern sporting world as we know it today.
Mr Dmitry, PE Teacher
